Росдистант. Иностранный язык в сфере юриспруденции 2. Практическое задание 2. Unit 2 Reading practice

Выполнено Практическое задание 2. Unit 2 Reading practice по учебному курсу "Иностранный язык в сфере юриспруденции 2"

PART II

READING PRACTICE

TEXT 1. WHAT IS LAW?

The word law has many meanings, and this word is used variously in different fields. For example, physical science has its law of gravity, and economics has the law of supply and demand. Do these laws have precise definitions? Is the same precision possible in jurisprudence – the scientific study of law? Over the years, legal scholars have offered dozens of definitions of law, but none of them is universally accepted as absolutely definitive. How can this difficulty in defining law be explained?

The English word law refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent law of economics. Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course.

In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that is, informal rules of social and moral behaviour. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.

What motives do governments have in making and enforcing laws? Social control is undoubtedly one purpose. Public laws establish the authority of the government itself, and civil laws provide a framework for interaction among citizens. Without laws, it is argued, there would be anarchy in society (although anarchists themselves argue that human beings would be able to interact peacefully without laws if there were no governments to interfere in our lives).

Another purpose is the implementation of justice. Justice is a concept that most people feel is very important but few are able to define. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision that most people feel is fair. But can we create a just society by simply observing public opinion? If we are always fair to majorities, we will often be unfair to minorities. If we do what seems to be fair at the moment, we may create unfairness in the future. Many philosophers have proposed concepts of justice that are much more theoretical than everyday notions of fairness, and sometimes governments are influenced by philosophers. But in general, governments are guided by more practical considerations such as rising crime rates or the lobbing of pressure groups.

Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined in law, and when definitions are being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long observation of many different people in different situations. Laws based upon common sense do not necessarily look much like common sense when they have been put into words.

In practice, governments are neither institutions solely interested in retaining power, nor clear-thinking bodies implementing justice and common sense. They combine many purposes and inherit many traditions. The laws that they make and enforce reflect this confusion.

Exercises:

1.               Прочитайте текст и выберите основную идею абзаца № 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Соотнесите предложенные варианты с номером абзаца.

1)               Social morality, rules and laws                1

2)               Common sense and law                           2

3)               Public and civil laws                       3

4)               The concept of justice                     4

5)               Descriptive and prescriptive laws   5

2.               Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому эквиваленту, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               natural phenomena                a)     последовательный, непоколебимый

2)               consistent                              b)     уровень преступности

3)               to impose upon                     c)      общественное мнение

4)               to enforce against                  d)     здравый смысл

5)               public law                              e)      основа, рамки

6)               civil law                                 f)      явления природы

7)               framework                             g)     перенимать, наследовать                                                                               традиции

8)               implementation of justice      h)     применять к, осуществлять

9)               public opinion                       i)      налагать на

10)          practical considerations                  j)      нарушить соглашение

11)          crime rate                              k)     удерживать власть

12)          common sense                       l)      практические соображения

13)          to break an agreement with   m)    публичное право

14)          to retain power                      n)     осуществление правосудия

15)          to inherit traditions               o)     гражданское право

3.               Сделайте подстановку синонимов, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)     consistent                              a)     structure

2)     impose                                   b)     accomplishment

3)     framework                             c)      conduct

4)     implementation                     d)     firm

5)     behavior                                e)      cooperation

6)     interaction                             f)      enforce

7)     agreement                              g)     covenant

4.     Вставьте правильный предлог, пользуясь текстом.

1)               Amended road laws impose new speed limits … drivers.

a)               upon b)     in               c)      —     d)     at

2)               We accept some rules if we belong … particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups.

a)               for             b)     to               c)      at     d)     in

3)               Laws are enforced … all citizens.

a)               on              b)     among       c)      at     d)     against

4)               Civil laws provide a framework … interaction among citizens.

a)               for             b)     —              c)      in     d)     at

5)               They may interfere … elections by the use of corrupt means.

a)               on              b)     along         c)      in     d)     at

6)               A person should be compensated … losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her.

a)    by         b)     for             c)      at     d)     of

7)               Descriptive laws are based … description or classification rather than explanation or prescription.

a)    in          b)     at               c)      f       d)     upon

5.               Переведите словосочетания из текста.

1)               явления природы

2)               публичное право

3)               осуществление правосудия

4)               закон тяготения

5)               общественное мнение

6)               предписанные водителям ограничения скорости

7)               практические соображения

8)               уровень преступности

9)               применять здравый смысл

10)          нарушить соглашение с

11)          удерживание власти

12)          гражданское право

13)          перенимать много традиций

6.      Заполните пропуски в предложениях из текста недостающими словами по смыслу. Первая буква каждого слова дана. Впишите полные слова в ответы.

1)               P… laws give directions, rules, or injunctions, while d… laws are based upon description or classification rather than explanation or prescription.

2)               Prescriptive laws comprise c… – usual or habitual practices, typical mode of behavior.

3)               Laws of a country are enforced against all its c… .

4)               P… l… is the branch of law that deals with relations between a state and its individual members.

5)               Laws provide a f… for interaction among citizens.

6)               J… is the principle of fairness that like cases should be treated alike.

7)               One of the factors in determining the actions of government is p… o… .

8)               The Democrats have a slim m… in the House, so they have more chances to influence adoption of the statute.

TEXT 2. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW.

Part 1. Criminal Law.

The most useful classification of legal liability for practical purposes is into civil and criminal. The basic difference is that an infringement of criminal law renders you liable to prosecution and, if you are convicted, you are liable to be punished; an infraction of the civil law means that the injured party may sue you and, if you are found liable, you are likely to have to pay a monetary compensation called damages or have some other remedy awarded against you.

One important reason for being able to distinguish between criminal and civil liability is that you can always compromise a claim in relation to the civil law, that is, you can bargain with the claimant (the person or company which is bringing the action against you) with a view to avoiding court action.

Criminal law deals with criminal liability by assigning crimes and fixing punishments for them. Also included in criminal law are rules and procedures for preventing and investigating crimes and prosecuting criminals, as well as the regulations governing the constitution of courts, the conduct of trials, the organization of police forces, and the administration of penal institutions.

As a matter of fact criminal law is based on a number of universal principles. Here are some of them:

-                  there is a presumption that the accused is innocent and the prosecution must prove his guilt beyond reasonable doubt;

-                  responsibility can exist only in the presence of guilt;

-                  a person may not be considered guilty unless all elements of an alleged crime (corpus delicti) have been established in his acts;

-                 criminal punishment shall be applied only by a sentence of the court.

The following general defences may excuse the accused from criminal responsibility:

-                  lack of age (if an offender is under 14 he is incapable of committing a crime);

-                  self-defence (when people have good reason to believe they are in danger of serious injury or death, they can use force to protect themselves);

-                  defence of family members (courts will not punish someone for using force to rescue a family member from attack if there was good reason to believe the victim was in danger of severe bodily injury or death);

-                  insanity (but everyone is presumed sane until the contrary is proved);

-                  duress by threats or duress of circumstances;

-                 automatism (it may arise as the result of a reflex action or concussion);

-                  entrapment (if a law enforcement officer induces a law-abiding citizen to commit a crime, which would not have been committed without the involvement of the officer).

Exercises:

1.               Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               legal liability                1      нарушение закона/правила/контракта

2)               civil                              2      наказанный, подверженный наказанию

3)               criminal                        3      средство судебной защиты, средство                                                            защиты права

4)               infringement                 4      договариваться; вести переговоры

5)               render                           5      возбудить иск, предъявить иск

6)               liable                            6      ответственность перед законом,                                                                    ответственность, признаваемая судом

7)               prosecution                           7      превращать, приводить в какое-либо                                                           состояние

8)               convicted                      8      преступление; злодеяние, нарушение,                                                          правонарушение

9)               punish                          9      уголовное преследование

10)          infraction                     10    потерпевшая сторона

11)          injured party                11    предотвращать, предупреждать

12)          sue                               12    преследовать судом; подавать в суд,                                                            возбуждать иск, предъявлять иск

13)          damages                       13    расследовать; изучать (вопрос);                                                                    рассматривать (дело)

14)          remedy                         14    гражданский (о деле, ответственности)

15)          compromise a claim     15    признан по суду виновным

16)          bargain                         16    подлежащий (чему-л.), ответственный,                                                         несущий ответственность

17)          claimant                       17    возмещение убытков, компенсация за                                                          убытки

18)          bring action                           18    устанавливать, фиксировать;                                                                                  закреплять

19)          crime                            19    криминальный, уголовный

20)          fix                                20    урегулировать спор мировой сделкой,                                                        заключать мировую сделку до суда

21)          prevent                         21    нарушение, несоблюдение (права,                                                                        закона, договора, обязанности)

22)          investigate                    22    истец; сторона, заявляющая требование

2.               Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               constitution of courts           1      противозаконное принуждение                                                                   под угрозой насилия, принуждение путём запугивания

2)               police force                          2      самозащита, самооборона

3)               administration                      3      состав преступления

4)               penal institution                   4      ответственность; способность отвечать за содеянное

5)               innocent                               5      невиновный

6)               beyond reasonable doubt              6      провоцирование на уголовно                                                                        наказуемое действие провокация                                                                  преступления с целью его                                                                              изобличения

7)               responsibility                       7      невменяемость, душевное                                                                              расстройство

8)               guilt                                      8      исправительное учреждение;                                                                       пенитенциарное, карательное                                                                        учреждение; пенитенциарий;                                                                         тюрьма

9)               corpus delicti                       9      потерпевший

10)          punishment                                   10    несовершеннолетие (моложе                                                                                  установленного законом                                                                               возраста, лишь по достижении                                                                      которого наступает полная                                                                            гражданская дееспособность)

11)          defence                                 11    полицейские силы, полиция;                                                                                   полицейское подразделение

12)          lack of age                            12    защита на суде

13)          commit a crime                    13    устройство судов, структура                                                                                  судебной системы

14)          self-defence                          14    контузия, сотрясение

15)          injury                                             15    увечье; травма; вред, ущерб

16)          victim                                   16    находящийся в здравом                                                                                рассудке; вменяемый

17)          sane                                      17    кара, наказание

18)          insanity                                18    руководство, управление

19)          duress by threats                  19    принуждение под влиянием                                                                          обстоятельств

20)          duress of circumstances                 20    вина; виновность

21)          concussion                           21    совершить преступление

22)          entrapment                           22    при отсутствии разумных                                                                          оснований для сомнения

Part 2. Civil Law.

Although most laymen’s perception of law is associated with criminal acts, in fact the greater part of our law is civil law. For the most part civil law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals (including legal individuals such as limited liability companies) as between themselves. Among civil law branches are such as Family law, Property law, Civil Rights law, Media law, Education law, Consumer protection law, Environmental law, etc.

The main areas of civil law with which a business may be concerned are:

Law of contract. This is concerned with the enforcement of promises, usually in the form of agreements. Such agreements may be formal written agreements or informal oral agreements, or even agreements to be implied from conduct.

Law of tort. A tort is a civil wrong, other than a breach of contract or a breach of trust (both of which are civil wrongs but are not torts), which may be remedied by an action for damages. Unlike contract the duty which is breached in committing a tort is fixed by the law, whereas the duty which is breached in committing a breach of contract is a duty undertaken voluntarily as a result of a promise to the other party. There are quite a number of individual torts: e.g. negligence, nuisance, trespass (to person, to goods, or to land), defamation, and deceit.

Commercial law. This law comprises the rules relating to specific types of contract such as sale of goods, supply of services, hire purchase, insurance, consumer credit, carriage of goods, etc.

Company law. This is the field of law concerning companies, corporations, partnerships and other business organizations. It also specifies the relationship between a business entity and outside parties who commercially interact with it.

Labour law. This can be divided into two parts. First, there is employment law – the part which regulates individual employment rights, for example, the rules relating to unfair dismissal, the right to redundancy payment, equal pay, etc. Secondly, there is industrial law – the part which relates to collective activity, for example, the law relating to industrial action, admission to and expulsion from trade unions, etc. Some employment law, particularly in the area of health and safety, is criminal law.

Land law. The main areas which concern businesses are the law relating to the relationship of landlord and tenant and planning law.

It is extremely important to understand that a particular course of conduct can give rise to consequences in both civil law and criminal law at the same time. For example, the crime of murder (and most other criminal offences involving physical injury) will at the same time involve the torts (that is, the civil wrongs) of assault and battery. The crime of causing criminal damage will amount to the tort of trespass to goods. The crime of causing death by dangerous driving will amount to the tort of negligence.

3.               Соотнесите русские слова и словосочетания к их английскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               непрофессионалы, неюристы, неспециалисты 1      enforcement        

2)               законодательство в области гражданских прав       2      action for                                                                                                         damages

3)               законодательство о средствах массовой                 3      deceit                          информации                                                     

4)               закон о защите потребителей                                   4      Consumer                                                                                                       protection law

5)               предприятие, фирма, компания, бизнес          5      laymen

6)               иметь дело                                                        6      sale of goods

7)               принудительное применение (права, закона); 7      supply of                    правоприменение; принудительное проведение      services                        в жизнь; принуждение к выполнению                                                       требований                                                                                 

8)               подразумеваться                                                    8      hire purchase

9)               деликт, гражданское правонарушение           9      be implied

10)          нарушение доверенным лицом своих             10    Civil Rights law          обязанностей, предусмотренных договором,                                               в пользу бенефициара                                           

11)          иск о возмещении убытков                             11    undertake

12)          брать на себя определённые обязательства,   12    be concerned               принимать на себя                                          

13)          небрежность; невнимательность, халатность 13    breach of trust

14)          помеха, неудобство; нарушение покоя, вред, 14    nuisance                      источник вреда, «зловредность» (в частности,                                                     причинение собственнику недвижимости                                                      помех и неудобств в пользовании ею)                 

15)          противоправное нарушение владения с                   15    business                      причинением вреда                                         

16)          обман, намеренное введение в заблуждение  16    tort

17)          продажа товара; закон, описывающий права 17    negligence                   покупателя и продавца                                             

18)          продажа и предоставления услуг                   18    Media law

19)          покупка или продажа в рассрочку                          19    trespass

4.               Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               insurance                    1      приём на работу, трудоустройство

2)               consumer credit          2      забастовочное движение

3)               carriage of goods         3      определенное поведение, конкретные                                                           действия

4)               partnership                 4      товарищество, партнерство                                                                           (некорпорированная фирма, которой                                                          управляют несколько компаньонов)

5)               business entity            5      страхование

6)               employment law         6      служить поводом, вызывать

7)               employment                         7      умышленное убийство

8)               unfair dismissal          8      оскорбление действием

9)               redundancy payment   9      несправедливое увольнение

10)          industrial law              10    потребительский кредит

11)          industrial action          11    профессиональные союзы

12)          trade unions                         12    опасное вождение

13)          landlord                      13    производственное право, закон о                                                                 внутрипроизводственных отношениях

14)          tenant                                   14    арендатор

15)          planning law               15    предприятие

16)          particular course of      16    пособие при увольнении в связи с                          conduct                                  сокращением

17)          give rise                      17    собственник недвижимости

18)          murder                        18    перевозка товаров

19)          assault and battery               19    законодательство о землеустройстве

20)          dangerous driving                20    трудовое право

5.               Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные эти утверждения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «Civil and criminal law» Part 1 и Part 2.

1)               A particular course of conduct can fall under both civil law and criminal law at the same time.

2)               A person may be considered guilty as soon as any element of an alleged crime has been established in his acts.

3)               Children under 16 are excused from criminal responsibility.

4)               Criminal Law not only defines crimes and fixes punishments for them but also includes some procedures for preventing crimes.

5)               Company law also specifies the relationship between a business entity and outside parties.

6)               Labour law can be divided into seven parts.

6.               Соотнесите слова и словосочетания к их переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               action for damages                1.     защита

2)               гражданское право              2.     халатность, пренебрежение

3)               корпоративное право          3.     иск о возмещении убытков

4)               поведение                             4.     presumption of innocence

5)               corpus delicti                         5.     (to) prosecute

6)               преступление                        6.     civil law

7)               уголовное право                  7.     injured party

8)               defences                                 8.     punishment

9)               виновный                              9.     company law

10)          пострадавшая сторона                  10.   (to) commit a crime

11)          трудовое право                    11.   labour law

12)          договорное право                         12.   conduct

13)          law of tort                             13.   (to) punish

14)          liability                                  14.   law of contract

15)          negligence                              15.   состав преступления

16)          презумпция невиновности   16.   преследование

17)          prosecution                                     17.   деликтное право

18)          наказание                              18.   crime

19)          совершать преступление     19.   guilt

20)          преследовать                        20.   обязательство, ответственность

21)          наказывать                                     21.   criminal law

22)          жертва                                  22.   victim

7.               Выполните письменный перевод текста «Part 2. Civil Law», пользуясь электронным словарем.

TEXT 3. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

The European Union (EU) is a supranational and intergovernmental union of 27 states with its total population about 500 million people. There are 23 official and working languages within the Union. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens: they directly elect the European Parliament, once every five years. They can live, travel, work, and invest in other member states (with some restrictions on new member states). Passport control and customs checks at most internal borders were abolished by the Schengen Agreement.

The European Union is governed by a number of institutions, these primarily being the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Court of Justice, and the European Parliament.

The European Commission acts as an executive or Civil Service. It is currently composed of one member from each state and is responsible for drafting all proposed law, a duty on which it maintains a monopoly in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and the day-to-day running of the Union. Its president is nominated by the European Council then elected by the Parliament.

The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the Union's legislative branch (the other being the Parliament). It is composed of the respective national ministers. The body's presidency rotates between the member-states every 6 months, though the current president member-state cooperates with the previous and future president member-state, to provide continuity.

The European Parliament is the only Union body composed of officials directly elected on European issues. Every 5 years citizens in all member-states vote for 751 «MEPs» who form the second half of the Union's legislative branch. Seats are distributed among the European Union member states based on their respective populations. Its members sit according to political groups rather than nationality and its president is elected by its members.

The judicial branch of the Union consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of one judge nominated by each member-state with the president elected from among those nominees. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to lift some of the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors which monitors the Union's accounts.

There is no official European capital, with institutions spread across a number of cities. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as it hosts most of the primary institutions, including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament also has its second seat in the city. Strasbourg is the official seat of the European Parliament, meeting there for twelve week-long plenary sessions each year. Luxembourg City plays host to the Secretariat of the European Parliament as well as the European Court of Justice, the Court of First Instance and the European Court of Auditors.

EU law covers only member states themselves. Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence, so that the law of a member state must lose effect. Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have «direct effect» horizontally.

The other main legal instrument of the EU, «directives», have direct effect, but only «vertically». Private citizens may not sue one another on the basis of EU directives, since these are meant to be addressed to the member state. Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on the law that has been implemented. They may only sue the government «vertically» for failing to implement a directive correctly.

Exercises:

1.               Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               Supranational              1.     чередовать(ся); сменять(ся) по очереди

2)               customs check              2.     преследовать судом; подавать в суд,                                                            возбуждать иск

3)               internal borders            3.     обеспечивать преемственность

4)               Schengen Agreement    4.     наднациональный       

5)               European Court           5.     кандидат на должность; номинант,                         of Justice (ECJ)                     претендент

6)               Civil Service                 6.     таможенный досмотр

7)               Presidency                    7.     принимать гостей, выступать в роли                                                            принимающей стороны

8)               Rotate                          8.     внутренние границы

9)               provide continuity                 9.     пленум; пленарное заседание

10)          nominee                       10.   Шенгенский договор, 1985                                                                            (Соглашение «О постепенной отмене                                                           проверок на общих границах»;                                                                    подписано в городке Шенген                                                                        (Люксембург)

11)          host                              11.   иметь преимущественное значение,                                                              превосходить по важности

12)          plenary session            12.   Европейский суд

13)          take precedence            13.   утратить юридическую силу

14)          lose effect                     14.   аппарат международных организаций

15)          sue                               15.   директива, предписание, руководящие                                                        разъяснения

16)          directive                       16.   1) президентство, обязанности                                                                      президента; 2) председательство;                                                                  обязанности председателя

2.               Выполните письменный перевод текста «European community», пользуясь электронным словарем.

TEXT 4. THE US ATTORNEY.

In order to practice law in the USA, one must first be «admitted to the bar» in an individual state. This entails passing the state bar exam. The bar exam covers the law particular to that state and is approximately 6 hours in length. Thus attorneys in America are licensed to practice only in their home states. If they wish to practice in another state, they must fulfill that state's requirements - such as taking test on the specific features of that state's law (a part of the bar examination) before they can practice. Fortunately, there are some states that have reciprocity agreements when two or more states honor each other's rights or privileges, such as practicing law.

Generally, state bar examiners require evidence of three qualities in exam candidates: sufficient general education at the undergraduate level; sufficient US legal education; and sufficient knowledge of local bar requirements. Each state bar administration sets its own criteria for permission to sit the state bar exam.

In addition to the state bar exam, almost all states also require the Multistate Bar Exam (MBE). The MBE covers general legal knowledge in areas such as contracts, torts, constitutional law, criminal law, evidence and real property. It is a 6-hour, multiple choice exam made up of 200 questions.

A typical second day of testing includes series of timed essay exams on a variety of subjects. This portion may be comprised of two other multistate exams: the Multistate Essay Exam (MEE) and the Multistate Performance Test (MPT).

Part of the licensing process involves the assessment by bar examiners of an applicant’s character and fitness to engage in the practice of law. Currently, most states also require law students to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE). The MPRE tests knowledge of the American Bar Association codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. The MPRE is a 2-hour, multiple-choice exam.

Upon admission to practice, an attorney is licensed to serve as both advocate and legal counselor. There is no division of the profession between barristers and solicitors, as in England.

At the same time on the federal level there exists the American Bar Association (ABA), which was founded in August 21, 1878 as a voluntary national organization of the legal profession. The activities of the association include maintenance of high ethical standards for the profession. The most current version of these standards, the Model Rules of Professional Conduct, was adopted in 2000.

The American Bar Association also accredits law schools under the authority of state high courts and the United States Department of Education, and according to standards developed by the association. Policies of the association are determined by a house of delegates representing the legal profession and administered by a board of governors. The ABA holds an annual meeting, which is the largest annual gathering of lawyers in the world, and is attended by approximately 12,500 international lawyers.

Exercises:

1.               Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               cover                           1.     уровень начальной стадии                                                                            высшего образования

2)               in length                      2.     функциональный тест

3)               reciprocity agreement   3.     включать, содержать, охватывать

4)               honor                                   4.     сдавать экзамен

5)               examiner                     5.     совет управляющих

6)               undergraduate level      6.     профессиональная ответственность       

7)               sit an exam                 7.     общий для определенного количества                                                          штатов

8)               multistate                    8.     продолжительностью

9)               multiple-choice exam   9.     палата депутатов

10)          essay exam                 10.   кодекс; система правил (поведения,                                                              чести, морали и т. д.)

11)          performance test         11.   экзамен, представляющий                                                                             возможность выбора из                                                                                 предоставленных ответов

12)          professional                          12.   соглашение, основанное на                            responsibility                        взаимности

13)          code                            13.   уважать, соблюдать

14)          judicial conduct          14.   беспристрастное поведение,                                                                                   поведение юриста

15)          current                        15.   сочинение-рассуждение

16)          accredit                       16.   современный, популярный, широко                                                             распространенный

17)          house of delegates                 17.   признать высшее учебное заведение                                                            правомочным выдавать дипломы и                                                              присваивать учёные степени

18)          board of governors      18.   экзаменатор, эксперт

2.     Ответьте письменно на вопросы по тексту.

1)               What must a person do if he wishes to practice law in the USA?

2)               How may reciprocity agreements between states be connected with legal profession?

3)               What qualities of candidates are evaluated by state bar examiners?

4)               What areas does the MBE cover general legal knowledge in?

5)               What does the MPRE tests knowledge code on?

6)               How long does the MPRE last?

7)               What activities does the ABA carry out?

8)               How are the policies of the ABA determined and administered?

3.     Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные предложения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «The US attorney».

1)               In order to practice law in the United States, one must be admitted to the ABA.        

2)               The criteria for permission to sit the state bar exam are the same all over the USA.

3)               The state bar exam in most states is also known as the Multistate Bar Exam.

4)               America has the same division of the profession between barristers and solicitors, as in England.

5)               The ABA holds an annual meeting, which is the largest annual gathering of lawyers in the world.

4.               Соотнесите глаголы к их определениям на английском языке, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

to administer      to admit              to argue     to compel  to disclose

to educate           to practice           to qualify   to regulate to represent

to require            to sue

1)               to allow somebody to become a member of a club, a school, or an organization;

2)               to be a member of a group of people and act or speak on their behalf at an event, a meeting, etc.; to make a formal statement to somebody in authority to make your opinions known or to protest;

3)     to control something by means of rules;

4)     to force somebody to do something; to cause a particular reaction; to make something necessary;

6)               to give reasons why you think that something is right / wrong, true / not true, etc., especially to persuade people that you are right;

7)               to give somebody information about something, especially something that was previously secret;

8)               to make a claim against somebody in court about something that they have said or done to harm you; to formally ask for something, especially in court;

9)               to manage and organize the affairs of a company, an organization, a country, etc.; to make sure that something is done fairly and in the correct way;

10)          to demand that smb should do, have or be sth, especially because it is their duty or responsibility; to make somebody do or have something, especially because it is necessary according to a particular law or set of rules;

11)          to reach the standard of ability or knowledge needed to do a particular job, for example by completing a course of study or passing exams;

12)          to teach somebody over a period of time at a school, university, etc.;

13)          to work as a doctor, lawyer, etc.; to do an activity or train regularly so that you can improve your skill.

Text 5. LAW FIRM.

A law firm is a business entity formed by one or more lawyers to engage in the practice of law. The primary service provided by a law firm is to advise clients (individuals or corporations) about their legal rights and responsibilities, and to represent their clients in civil or criminal cases, business transactions and other matters in which legal assistance is sought.

Smaller firms tend to focus on particular specialties of the law (e.g. patent law, labor law, tax law, criminal defense, personal injury); larger firms may be composed of several specialized practice groups, allowing the firm to diversify their client base and market, and to offer a variety of services to their clients.

Law firms are organized in a variety of ways, but common arrangements include:

-                 sole proprietorship, in which the lawyer is the law firm and is responsible for all profit, loss and liability;

-                  general partnership, in which all of the lawyers in the firm equally share ownership and liability;

-                limited liability partnership, in which the lawyer-owners are partners with one another, but no partner is liable to any creditor of the law firm nor is any partner liable for any negligence on the part of any other partner;

-                  limited liability company, in which the lawyer-owners are called «members» but are not directly liable to third party creditors of the law firm.

In many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, there is a rule that only lawyers may have an ownership interest in, or be managers of, a law firm. Thus, law firms cannot quickly raise capital through initial public offerings on the stock market, like most corporations. The rule was created in order to prevent conflicts of interest.

Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee, a contingency fee (usually in cases involving personal injury), or a lump sum payment if the matter is straightforward. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance. In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs.

Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary. In many countries lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called pro bono (for the common good). Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes like the natural environment.

Exercises:

1.               Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.

1)               engage in                      1.     «конфликт интересов»,                                                                                  злоупотребление положением в                                                                    личных целях»

2)               business transaction     2.     соглашение об оплате услуг

3)               specialty = speciality   3.     простой, ясный, понятный

4)               composed                     4.     фондовый рынок, рынок ценных                                                                  бумаг

5)               diversify                       5.     предварительно, авансом, вперёд

6)               client base                    6.     привлекать капитал,                                                                                       мобилизовывать средства

7)               raise capital                           7.     невозмещаемый                                                                                             предварительный гонорар адвокату

8)               stock market                8.     клиентская база, клиентура

9)               conflict of interest                  9.     практика оплаты судебных                                                                           издержек проигравшей стороной

10)          straightforward            10.   диверсифицировать, разнообразить,                                                            дифференцировать

11)          fee agreement               11.   в списочном составе, из фонда                                                                      заработной платы

12)          up front                        12.   сборный, составной

13)          non-refundable retainer 13.   некоммерческая компания

14)          fee-shifting arrangement        14.   специализация,                                                                                               специализированная услуга

15)          on the payroll              15.   предлагать (свою помощь, услуги)                                                                        бесплатно; вызваться добровольно;                                                                       добровольно взять на себя что-л.

16)          nonprofit                      16.   деловая операция, коммерческая                                                                  сделка

17)          volunteer                      17.   благое дело, социально-значимое дело

18)          worthy cause                18.   заниматься, иметь дело

2.     Ответьте письменно на вопросы по тексту. На вопросы 1 и 2 дайте краткий ответ «Да», «Нет».

1)               Is there any limitation with regard to the number of lawyers who may establish a law firm?

2)               Does the size of a law firm reflect the range of services it may provide?

3)               Who may have an ownership interest in a law firm? Why is it so?

4)               What are the kinds of fees for legal services?

5)               What does a fee-shifting arrangement stipulate?

6)               Who in legal profession usually earns a regular annual salary?

3.     Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные эти утверждения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «The US attorney».

1)               Only corporations may seek for advice of a law firm.

2)               A law firm may be organized either as a sole proprietorship or a partnership.

3)               Any citizen of a particular age and compos mentis may have an ownership interest in, or be a manager of, a law firm.

4)               As a rule law firms raise their capital through regular public offerings on the stock market.

5)               In many countries lawyers are prohibited to volunteer their labor.

6)               In private practice lawyers work on the payroll of the government.

7)               A lump sum payment is a common arrangement for work being performed on behalf of the poor.