[Росдистант] Иностранный язык в сфере юриспруденции 2 Росдистант ТГУ
Вашему вниманию представлены Практические задания 1,2,3 по курсу:
"Иностранный язык в сфере юриспруденции 2".
Задания оценены на высокий балл .
PART I
VOCABULARY PRACTICE
UNIT I.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. to prosecute offender a. устаревший закон
2. public scrutiny b. первое/второе чтение
3. Human Rights Act c. отменить закон
4. criminal prosecution d. Верховный Суд
5. obsolete law e. сфера действия права
6. judge f. общественное рассмотрение
7. first/second reading g. закон о правах человека
8. to repeal law h. преследовать правонарушителя
9. High Court i. уголовное преследование
10. field of law j. судья
B.
1. внешняя политика a. to be elected
2. особые полномочия, юрисдикция b. legislation
3. доказательство c. eventual decision
4. гражданин d. to be elected
5. окончательное решение e. hierarchy of the courts
6. общественный орган f. jurisdiction
7. быть избранным g. foreign policy
8. иерархия судов h. evidence
9. быть выбранным i. citizen
10. законопроект j. public body
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. A branch of law which is concerned with persons, corporations, property and relationships
a. private
b. substantive law
c. family law
d. public law
2. Upper house of UK Parliament
a. chamber
b. House of Commons
c. House of Lords
d. elected body
3. An agreement between countries
a. law
b. Constitution
c. Assembly
d. Convention
4. A request at court for compensation or for protecting rights
a. act
b. law
c. claim
d. action
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. the UK, there are, jurisdictions, three, in.
2. primary legislation, in, and, secondary legislation, the UK, there are,.
3. between, more , the distinction, important, criminal, and, civil law, is.
4. are elected, they, by majority.
5. it, at the second reading, happens.
6. their experience, different titles, depending on, training, judges, have, and, level.
7. citizens, all, before, are equal, the law.
UNIT 2.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. petty crime a. убийство
2. common law b. наркобизнес
3. hear the evidence c. вред, ущерб
4. sentence d. истец
5. harm e. мелкое правонарушение
6. circuit judge f. правовая система
7. homicide g. заслушать показания
8. plaintiff h. окружной судья
9. legal system i. приговор
10. drug dealing j. общее право
B.
1. обвинять в a. legal practice
2. суд по делам несовершеннолетних b. consumer complaint
3. юридическая практика c. prosecute
4. дело о банкротстве d. the Сrown court
5. услуги e. the youth/juvenile court
6. присяжные f. сharge with
7. травма g. bankruptcy case
8. жалоба потребителя h. services
9. королевский суд i. the jury
10. преследовать в судебном порядке j. injury
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Period of time when Parliament discussed idea of passing new act
a. to pass an Act
b. a consultative process
c. legislative process
d. to enforce
2. Association of people who tries to influence the legislative process in their own interest
a. voluntary organization
b. professional body
c. government ministers
d. pressure group
3. Common law is…
a. a unified system of precedents, the total for the whole of Britain, one of the components of the Anglo-Saxon legal system based on local customs and practiced by the royal courts.
b. hierarchy of the courts in the UK.
c. the Human Rights Act of 1988.
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. new legislation, is, enacted, how?
2. and, consists of, the common law, procedural rules, the substantive law.
3. deal with, petty, crimes, the Magistrate’s Courts.
4. it, and, rights, liabilities, defines, duties.
5. the court, life peers, consists of, and, of the House of Lords, appointed, twelve, from, judges, barristers.
6. trial, in, by the Normans, was brought, to England, by jury, 1066.
7. the hierarchy, the common law, is, essential to, of the courts, in the UK.
UNIT 3.
Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. legal aid a. расследовать преступление
2. cross-examination b. воровство
3. investigate a crime c. правовая помощь
4. indictable offence d. coглашение
5. will e. решение суда
6. convention f. признавать себя виновным
7. assent g. санкция
8. plead guilty h. перекрестный допрос
9. theft i. завещание
10. judicial decision j. преступление, подлежащие уголовному рассмотрению
B.
1. осуждение a. detain
2. обязанность b. prison
3. задержать c. criminal
4. обеспечивать d. liability
5. требование e. conviction
6. вызов, повестка в суд f. duty
7. ответственность g. claim
8. тюрьма h. provide
9. иск i. summon
10. преступник j. requirement
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Legal system is…
a. an interpretation of law.
b. a set of rules, institutions and industry rights in their relationship.
c. statements of law.
2. Judicial decision is…
a. a resolution of the specific law court for the concrete case.
b. a legal procedure
c. an interpretation of law
3. Precedent is…
a. a resolution of the specific law court for the concrete case which has the source of power
b. is a legislation
c. procedural rules
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. are, assault, indictable offences, drug dealing, such as, theft, and, serious ones, murder.
2. as comfortably, to live, every country, to provide, that, its people, laws, safely, and, tries, will help, as possible.
3. is, the examination, of a witness, cross-examination.
4. compensation, the legal text, injuries, deals with, for, bodily.
5. any, a judicial decision, can get, accused person.
6. of, is regarded, as a father, Cesare Lombroso, to be, of, the scientific study, criminals.
7. to make, if, you, consult, your will, a lawyer, want.
UNIT 4.
Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. monetary sum a. неплатежеспособность
2. make an order b. встречный иск
3. judgement c. вступить в силу
4. witness d. денежно-кредитная сумма
5. insolvency e. нарушение условий контракта
6. practicing lawyer f. выплата по долгам
7. come into force g. предъявить ордер
8. breach of contract h. свидетель
9. counterclaim i. судебное решение
10. debt repayment j. практикующий юрист
B.
1. процессуальное право a. litigation
2. частное право b. claim form
3. подробные сведения (отчет) c. right
4. публичное право d. commit a crime
5. право (гражданина) e. procedural law
6. развод f. private law
7. тяжба, судебный процесс, спор g. constitutional law
8. бланк заявления h. public law
9. совершить преступление i. particulars
10. конституционное право j. divorce
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Stipendiary is
a. a member of House of Lords
b. a full-time paid magistrate who has qualified as a lawyer
c. a student who receives scholarships
2. Lay magistrate is
a. unpaid member of the local law community
b. a barrister
c. a judge
3. Circuit is
a. an administration of a Youth Court
b. a criminal division of the Court of Appeal
c. a geographical division for legal purposes
4. Recorder is
a. a part-time judge with ten years standing as a barrister or solicitor
b. one of juries
c. a magistrate of the Magistrates’ Court
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. who, commit ,are, persons, criminals, crimes.
2. came into force, in 2014, rules, only, these.
3. a secretary, a claim form, ask, about.
4. concerning insolvency, breach of contract, aren’t investigated, and, in this court, the cases.
5. the study, of basic laws, constitutional law, is, of nation states, and, other political organizations.
6. am sure, there were, some, I, witnesses.
7. equal rights, the law, have, before, all citizens.
UNIT 5.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. tribunal a. правительство
2. citizenship b. таможенный союз
3. human rights c. публичный
4. economic integration d. квота
5. public e. вторичное законодательство
6. frontier f. права человека
7. government g. экономическая интеграция
8. customs union h. гражданство
9. secondary legislation i. трибунал
10. quota j. граница
B.
1. профессиональное мастерство a. corporation
2. консультант правовед b. measure
3. проект документов c. have a right of audience
4. частные фирмы d. international law firm
5. ордер, приказ e. regulation
6. корпорация f. professional skills
7. мера g. draft documents
8. международная юридическая фирма h. private firms
9. постановление i. legal adviser
10. иметь право голоса j. warrant
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Witness is
a. a person who does not like a crime
b. a person who guesses that this or that
c. a person who has committed a crime
d. a person who saw or heard something about the offence
2. Alibis:
a. system of circumstantial evidences
b. incontestable proofs of innocence of the suspected person
c. a Swiss cheese Grade
d. gastric illness
3. Burglary:
a. secret plunder of somebody’s property
b. a murder for the purpose of a body plunder
c. an institute of witnesses’ protection
d. irrational use of napkins
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. the power of the monarch, Magna Carta, established, of limited government, where, the principle, was limited.
2. this person, is not, eighteen, a right of audience, because, doesn’t have, he, yet.
3. decide, obligations, and, of private citizens, the rights, tribunals,.
4. of law, regulations, one of the sources, are, in any country.
5. the European Convention of Human Rights, the UK, signed up.
6. in, Mr.Green, to allow officers after refusing, was arrested, without a warrant.
7. works, in the private firm, he, as a legal adviser.
UNIT 6.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. unlimited liability a. условный приговор
2. assistant solicitor b. временный судебный запрет
3. pickpocket c. неограниченная ответственность
4. life imprisonment d. председательствующий в суде
5. legal person e. управление автомобилем в нетрезвом состоянии
6. suspended sentence f. помощник поверенного
7. probation officer g. карманник
8. on the Bench h. должностное лицо, осуществляющее надзор за условно осужденными
9. interim injunction i. пожизненное заключение
10. drunk-driving j. юридическое лицо
B.
1. профессиональная ответственность a. sister firm
2. поверенный b. tax
3. правовой, юридический c. lawyer
4. существенные инвестиции d. court
5. налог e. relevant expertise
6. дочерняя фирма f. identification procedure
7. процедура идентификации g. significant investment
8. суд h. professional indemnity
9. судебное разбирательство, слушание дела i. legal
10. соответствующая экспертиза j. trial
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Appellant is
a. a victim
b. a judge
c. a person who appeals
2. Defendant is
a. a person working in the court
b. a person protecting a society
c. a person making laws
d. a person charged with a crime
3. Witness is
a. a life-sentence prisoner
b. a person committing a crime
c. a convicted prisoner
d. a person who saw or heard something about the offence
4. Plaintiff is
a. a person who protests
b. a party who begins an action, complains
c. a person who uses a magic power
d. one from whom a person is descended or sues
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. a special law, taxes, are regulated, prices of goods, by, and.
2. to the court, a case, unfair dismissal, could be considered, of.
3. in crowded places, a pickpocket, a person, steals, things, who, from people’s pockets, is.
4. one of the sources, regulations, are, of law, in any country.
5. Helsinki, in, three, ago, John, worked, years, a sister firm, in.
6. under, the supervision, are, a lot of, accused persons, of, a probation officer.
7. the judge’s area, is, the Bench, of the Court.
UNIT 7.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. employee a. убийство с заранее обдуманным умыслом
2. murder b. ответственность за
3. profit c. осуждение
4. bargain d. расследование
5. offence e. служащий
6. investigation f. долги
7. responsibility for g. отношение
8. condemnation h. прибыль
9. debts i. нарушение, проступок
10. relation j. сделка
B.
1. предприятие a. sole trader
2. товарищество, партнерство b. trading certificate
3. регистрационный номер c. shareholder
4. частная компания с ограниченной ответственностью d. articles of association
5. разрешение на торговлю e. partnership
6. акционер f. bailiff
7. устав акционерной компании g. assets
8. единоличный торговец h. Private Limited Company
9. активы, капитал, фонды i. registered number
10. судебный исполнитель j. enterprise
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Claimant is
a. a plaintiff
b. a military man
c. a state prosecutor participating in judicial session
d. an employee of a security company
2. Monetary value is
a. a secret plunder of smb's property
b. an object of the world representing gold-currency
c. an institute of witnesses protection
d. an irrational use of napkins
3. Counterclaim
a. claim presented by a defendant in opposition to the claim of the plaintiff
b. a document for reviewing a case in the Higher court
c. a judgment about guiltiness and innocence of a person
d. a document about privileges for somebody
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. in the investigation, bad mistakes, were made, a few.
2. a common form, partnership, for certain kinds, of business, is, of structure.
3. quiet different, to the police, the relation, is.
4. was accepted, a trading certificate, last month.
5. who, someone, shares, as a shareholder, owns, is known,.
6. of the business, was, a person, was responsible for, who, all the debts, he.
7. bankruptcy, on the verge, this company, is, of.
UNIT 8.
Ex.1 atch the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. loan a. ссуда под недвижимость
2. personal responsibility b. рыночная стоимость
3. par value c. уголовное преступление
4. defaulting company d. торговая палата
5. permission e. трудовой контракт
6. mortgage f. заем
7. criminal offense g. номинальная стоимость
8. Companies House h. личная ответственность
9. employment contract i. умирающая компания
10. market value j. разрешение
B.
1. смертная казнь a. allowance
2. спор по гражданским делам b. tax exemption
3. уплата налога c. tax policy
4. денежное пособие d. financial state of a company
5. уклонение от уплаты налогов e. tax-relief
6. декларация (возврат налога) f. Tax Return
7. освобождение от налогов g. civil dispute
8. скидка на налог h. tax-avoidance
9. налоговая политика i. capital punishment
10. финансовое состояние компании j. tax payment
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
a. Legal system is
a. statements of law
b. a set of different institutions
c. interpretation of law
b. Cite case is
a. a reference to a case
b. a procedural rule
c. a legislation
3. Dismissal is
a. a special expertise
b. discharge from office
c. a witness statement
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. a first legal charge, over the property, is, a mortgage.
2. the court’s decision, may be fined, by, the defaulting company.
3. has, the director of the company, for company’s deals, personal responsibility.
4. of, tax payment, the responsibility, is, all companies.
5. and, Tax Return, of income, is, for declaration, a form, allowance.
6. Interchangeable, are, and, the words,” loan agreement”, “loan contract”.
7. the early nineteenth century, in, capital punishment, was widespread.
UNIT 9.
Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. tax benefits a. поглощение (путем приобретения ценных бумаг), слияние компаний
2. forfeiture b. деликтное право
3. stock market c. истец
4. information gathering d. законное оправдание
5. claimant e. гражданский иск
6. tort law f. сбор информации
7. lawful justification g. налоговые льготы
8. market investigation h. конфискация
9. merger i. изучение (исследования) рынка
10. civil proceeding j. рынок ценных бумаг
B.
1. потребитель a. slander
2. насилие b. financial loss
3. похититель людей c. trespass
4. клевета, кляуза (в письменном виде) d. defamation
5. клевета (в СМИ) e. negligence
6. клевета (в устной форме) f. consumer
7. финансовые потери g. nuisance
8. нарушение общественного порядка h. forcible injury
9. злоупотребление i. kidnapper
10. халатность, небрежность, невнимательность j. libel
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Directives are
a. The power to govern
b. Citizenship
c. Special rules binding on member states but not individuals until they have been transposed into national law
2. Recommendations are
a. Laws for everybody
b. Binding on those to whom they are addressed
c. Persuasive, that is, have influence
3. Decisions are
a. Human rights
b. Goods
c. Binding on there to whom they are addressed
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. was accused, ex-director, with forfeitures, of, his company.
2. in, to be, happened, a good specialist, he, the market investigation.
3. had, one, the largest regional building firm, of ,a great financial loss.
4. his, in theft , defamed, neighbor, him.
5. clinical negligence, specialize, in, at a regional firm, David Jones,.
6. than, during, were mergered, more, twenty, companies, the last three years, by this foreign concern.
UNIT 10.
Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. tort a. ответчик
2. mental disability b. ошибочный, неверный, правонарушение
3. wrong c. аренда
4. medical records d. умственная неспособность (недееспособность)
5. lease e. договор продажи (покупки)
6. contract law f. договор о найме
7. sales agreement g. соглашение о продаже в рассрочку
8. defendant h. медицинская документация
9. a hire contract i. контрактное право
10. a hire purchase agreement j. гражданское правонарушение, деликт
B.
1. договор личного найма (трудовой договор) a. delay
2. встречная оферта b. vendor
3. поставка c. parties concerned
4. заинтересованные стороны d. counter offer
5. цена e. delivery
6. жертва f. terms of the agreement
7. продавец (недвижимости), риелтор g. price
8. условия юридического соглашения h. service contract
9. долг, связанный с азартной игрой i. victim
10. отсрочка j. gambling debt
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Will
b. a paper about leaving your property to somebody
c. suggestion
d. contract
e. partnership form
2. Experience
a. regulations
b. skills
c. rules
d. test
3. Barrister
a. trainee
b. Business man
c. legal person
d. supervisor
4. Privatization
a. taking to property
b. leaving to somebody
c. instructing a client
d. practicing as a solicitor
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. is, breach of contract, a civil wrong, that, excludes, a tort.
2. the terms, both parties, tried, to keep, of the agreement, concerned.
3. to be delivered, was unlikely, to the defendant, the claim.
4. as a vendor, my, sister, works.
5. but, gambling debts, Mr. Smith, always, gambled, had, never.
UNIT 11.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. warranty a. навязывать, возлагать
2. void contract b. рекламация (претензия)
3. clause c. пострадавшая сторона
4. pre-condition d. разрыв контракта
5. Transfer Deed e. условие контракта
6. impose on f. недействительный договор
7. representation g. документ о передачи права собственности
8. discharge of contract h. гарантия
9. term of a contract i. клаузула (статья в договоре)
10. innocent party j. предварительное условие
B.
1. предложение (оферта) a. principal
2. поставка товаров b. purchaser
3. предприниматель c. licensor
4. шеф, начальник d. licensee
5. поставщик e. offer
6. лицензиат f. supply of goods
7. покупатель g. trainee
8. лицензиар h. entrepreneur
9. стажер, практикант i. supplier
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Draft
a. form
b. project
c. legal system
d. court
2. Trainee
a. a person who practices in professional activity
b. a person who graduate in a nonlaw subject
c. a lay client
d. a member of Inn
3. A Bachelor of laws
a. a scientific degree
b. a badge of a law student
c. a name of a law subject
d. a qualifying law degree
4. Litigation
a. an advocacy training
b. a questioning
c. a trial
d. a shop-lifting
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. to break, a warranty, the other party, as discharged, doesn’t permit, the contract.
2. for sale, this, is, offered, object.
3. under this act, of unfair terms, the country, the use, imposed on, of a contract.
4. with licensors, licensees, many firms, who, work, and, there are.
5. it, a purchaser, some product, sells, and, buys, a supplier.
6. for, this, trainees, non-academic society, educational resources, provides of high quality, its.
UNIT 12.
Ex. 1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. copyright law a. печать, пломба
2. breach of copyright b. лицензионное соглашение
3. law firm’s Real Estate c. пролонгация договора
4. insurance of the property d. арендодатель
5. license agreement e. авторское право
6. freeholder f. арендатор
7. approval g. страхование собственности
8. seal h. агентство недвижимости
9. tenant i. нарушение авторского права
10. renewal of the lease j. одобрение
B.
1. работник a. patent office
2. оплата труда b. Employment law
3. отпуск по уходу за ребенком c. copyright protection
4. неполный рабочий день d. sick pay
5. заявление, форма заявления e. employment tribunal
6. защита авторских прав f. parental leave
7. трудовое право g. wage
8. патентное бюро h. applicant
9. пособие по болезни i. employee
10. условия труда j. part-time employment
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Lawyer
a. a wide nonspecific group of people who share some of the same background and culture
b. a professional who practices law
2. Act
a. the petition of people
b. the decree of a state body
3. The bargain
a. business contract between somebody
b. relations of people
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. when buying, of packaging, pay attention, to the seal, any expensive devices.
2. everybody, a license agreement, demanded, for this service.
3. to this institute, there were, a hundred applicants.
4. artistic, intellectual property, or, such as, literary, dramatic, deals with, musical, copyright law.
5. procedure, employment law department, contracts, employment policy, and, advise on, our.
6. the statutory rights, time off, holidays, include, a national minimum wage, and, and, of employees, statutory sick pay, parental leave.
UNIT 13.
Ex.1. Match the following expressions with their equivalents: A) English with Russian, B) Russian with English
A.
1. intellectual property a. закон о товарных знака
2. country code b. мошенничество с кредитной картой
3. money laundering c. несанкционированный доступ
4. illegal activity d. санкционированное использование
5. access the Internet e. экологическое право
6. Trade Marks Act f. отмывание денег
7. authorized use g. код страны
8. credit card scam h. интеллектуальная собственность
9. environmental law i. противозаконная деятельность
10. unauthorized access j. доступ в Интернет
B.
1. в рамках закона a. domestic law
2. нападение b. legal practitioner
3. бесплатный c. treaty
4. изнасилование d. jail
5. соглашение (конвенция) e. within legal framework
6. измена f. free of charge
7. закон, действующий внутри страны g. rape
8. наемный убийца h. assault
9. правовед-практик i. treason
10. тюрьма j. assassin
Ex. 2. Choose the right definition of the following terms:
1. Terrorism
a. violent actions for political reasons
b. politics and rules of vandals
2. Tort
a. a criminal offence
b. a civil wrong
3. Defamation
a. a wrong statement about someone in mass media
b. a wrong statement about someone in oral speech
4. Nuisance
a. an acceptance of social customs or practice
b. break rules of behavior in public
Ex. 3. Make up sentences with the following words:
1. its own country code, every country, has.
2. free of charge, the access the Internet, isn’t.
3. to International Laws, have to, all domestic laws, correlate.
4. illegal activity, your, will be punished.
5. some notes, a partner, her trainee, to draft, has asked, on environmental law.
6. within legal framework, the treaty, of the environmental protection, was signed.
7. specializing, information technology, a legal practitioner, in, at the meeting, was speaking.
PART II
READING PRACTICE
TEXT 1. WHAT IS LAW?
The word law has many meanings, and this word is used variously in different fields. For example, physical science has its law of gravity, and economics has the law of supply and demand. Do these laws have precise definitions? Is the same precision possible in jurisprudence – the scientific study of law? Over the years, legal scholars have offered dozens of definitions of law, but none of them is universally accepted as absolutely definitive. How can this difficulty in defining law be explained?
The English word law refers to limits upon various forms of behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent law of economics. Other laws are prescriptive – they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed limits imposed upon drivers are laws that prescribe how fast we should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course.
In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that is, informal rules of social and moral behaviour. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.
What motives do governments have in making and enforcing laws? Social control is undoubtedly one purpose. Public laws establish the authority of the government itself, and civil laws provide a framework for interaction among citizens. Without laws, it is argued, there would be anarchy in society (although anarchists themselves argue that human beings would be able to interact peacefully without laws if there were no governments to interfere in our lives).
Another purpose is the implementation of justice. Justice is a concept that most people feel is very important but few are able to define. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision that most people feel is fair. But can we create a just society by simply observing public opinion? If we are always fair to majorities, we will often be unfair to minorities. If we do what seems to be fair at the moment, we may create unfairness in the future. Many philosophers have proposed concepts of justice that are much more theoretical than everyday notions of fairness, and sometimes governments are influenced by philosophers. But in general, governments are guided by more practical considerations such as rising crime rates or the lobbing of pressure groups.
Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined in law, and when definitions are being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long observation of many different people in different situations. Laws based upon common sense do not necessarily look much like common sense when they have been put into words.
In practice, governments are neither institutions solely interested in retaining power, nor clear-thinking bodies implementing justice and common sense. They combine many purposes and inherit many traditions. The laws that they make and enforce reflect this confusion.
Exercises:
1. Прочитайте текст и выберите основную идею абзаца № 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Соотнесите предложенные варианты с номером абзаца.
1) Social morality, rules and laws 1
2) Common sense and law 2
3) Public and civil laws 3
4) The concept of justice 4
5) Descriptive and prescriptive laws 5
2. Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому эквиваленту, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) natural phenomena a) последовательный, непоколебимый
2) consistent b) уровень преступности
3) to impose upon c) общественное мнение
4) to enforce against d) здравый смысл
5) public law e) основа, рамки
6) civil law f) явления природы
7) framework g) перенимать, наследовать традиции
8) implementation of justice h) применять к, осуществлять
9) public opinion i) налагать на
10) practical considerations j) нарушить соглашение
11) crime rate k) удерживать власть
12) common sense l) практические соображения
13) to break an agreement with m) публичное право
14) to retain power n) осуществление правосудия
15) to inherit traditions o) гражданское право
3. Сделайте подстановку синонимов, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) consistent a) structure
2) impose b) accomplishment
3) framework c) conduct
4) implementation d) firm
5) behavior e) cooperation
6) interaction f) enforce
7) agreement g) covenant
4. Вставьте правильный предлог, пользуясь текстом.
1) Amended road laws impose new speed limits … drivers.
a) upon b) in c) — d) at
2) We accept some rules if we belong … particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups.
a) for b) to c) at d) in
3) Laws are enforced … all citizens.
a) on b) among c) at d) against
4) Civil laws provide a framework … interaction among citizens.
a) for b) — c) in d) at
5) They may interfere … elections by the use of corrupt means.
a) on b) along c) in d) at
6) A person should be compensated … losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her.
a) by b) for c) at d) of
7) Descriptive laws are based … description or classification rather than explanation or prescription.
a) in b) at c) f d) upon
5. Переведите словосочетания из текста.
1) явления природы
2) публичное право
3) осуществление правосудия
4) закон тяготения
5) общественное мнение
6) предписанные водителям ограничения скорости
7) практические соображения
8) уровень преступности
9) применять здравый смысл
10) нарушить соглашение с
11) удерживание власти
12) гражданское право
13) перенимать много традиций
6. Заполните пропуски в предложениях из текста недостающими словами по смыслу. Первая буква каждого слова дана. Впишите полные слова в ответы.
1) P… laws give directions, rules, or injunctions, while d… laws are based upon description or classification rather than explanation or prescription.
2) Prescriptive laws comprise c… – usual or habitual practices, typical mode of behavior.
3) Laws of a country are enforced against all its c… .
4) P… l… is the branch of law that deals with relations between a state and its individual members.
5) Laws provide a f… for interaction among citizens.
6) J… is the principle of fairness that like cases should be treated alike.
7) One of the factors in determining the actions of government is p… o… .
8) The Democrats have a slim m… in the House, so they have more chances to influence adoption of the statute.
TEXT 2. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW.
Part 1. Criminal Law.
The most useful classification of legal liability for practical purposes is into civil and criminal. The basic difference is that an infringement of criminal law renders you liable to prosecution and, if you are convicted, you are liable to be punished; an infraction of the civil law means that the injured party may sue you and, if you are found liable, you are likely to have to pay a monetary compensation called damages or have some other remedy awarded against you.
One important reason for being able to distinguish between criminal and civil liability is that you can always compromise a claim in relation to the civil law, that is, you can bargain with the claimant (the person or company which is bringing the action against you) with a view to avoiding court action.
Criminal law deals with criminal liability by assigning crimes and fixing punishments for them. Also included in criminal law are rules and procedures for preventing and investigating crimes and prosecuting criminals, as well as the regulations governing the constitution of courts, the conduct of trials, the organization of police forces, and the administration of penal institutions.
As a matter of fact criminal law is based on a number of universal principles. Here are some of them:
• there is a presumption that the accused is innocent and the prosecution must prove his guilt beyond reasonable doubt;
• responsibility can exist only in the presence of guilt;
• a person may not be considered guilty unless all elements of an alleged crime (corpus delicti) have been established in his acts;
• criminal punishment shall be applied only by a sentence of the court.
The following general defences may excuse the accused from criminal responsibility:
• lack of age (if an offender is under 14 he is incapable of committing a crime);
• self-defence (when people have good reason to believe they are in danger of serious injury or death, they can use force to protect themselves);
• defence of family members (courts will not punish someone for using force to rescue a family member from attack if there was good reason to believe the victim was in danger of severe bodily injury or death);
• insanity (but everyone is presumed sane until the contrary is proved);
• duress by threats or duress of circumstances;
• automatism (it may arise as the result of a reflex action or concussion);
• entrapment (if a law enforcement officer induces a law-abiding citizen to commit a crime, which would not have been committed without the involvement of the officer).
Exercises:
1. Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) legal liability 1 нарушение закона/правила/контракта
2) civil 2 наказанный, подверженный наказанию
3) criminal 3 средство судебной защиты, средство защиты права
4) infringement 4 договариваться; вести переговоры
5) render 5 возбудить иск, предъявить иск
6) liable 6 ответственность перед законом, ответственность, признаваемая судом
7) prosecution 7 превращать, приводить в какое-либо состояние
8) convicted 8 преступление; злодеяние, нарушение, правонарушение
9) punish 9 уголовное преследование
10) infraction 10 потерпевшая сторона
11) injured party 11 предотвращать, предупреждать
12) sue 12 преследовать судом; подавать в суд, возбуждать иск, предъявлять иск
13) damages 13 расследовать; изучать (вопрос); рассматривать (дело)
14) remedy 14 гражданский (о деле, ответственности)
15) compromise a claim 15 признан по суду виновным
16) bargain 16 подлежащий (чему-л.), ответственный, несущий ответственность
17) claimant 17 возмещение убытков, компенсация за убытки
18) bring action 18 устанавливать, фиксировать; закреплять
19) crime 19 криминальный, уголовный
20) fix 20 урегулировать спор мировой сделкой, заключать мировую сделку до суда
21) prevent 21 нарушение, несоблюдение (права, закона, договора, обязанности)
22) investigate 22 истец; сторона, заявляющая требование
2. Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) constitution of courts 1 противозаконное принуждение под угрозой насилия, принуждение путём запугивания
2) police force 2 самозащита, самооборона
3) administration 3 состав преступления
4) penal institution 4 ответственность; способность отвечать за содеянное
5) innocent 5 невиновный
6) beyond reasonable doubt 6 провоцирование на уголовно наказуемое действие провокация преступления с целью его изобличения
7) responsibility 7 невменяемость, душевное расстройство
8) guilt 8 исправительное учреждение; пенитенциарное, карательное учреждение; пенитенциарий; тюрьма
9) corpus delicti 9 потерпевший
10) punishment 10 несовершеннолетие (моложе установленного законом возраста, лишь по достижении которого наступает полная гражданская дееспособность)
11) defence 11 полицейские силы, полиция; полицейское подразделение
12) lack of age 12 защита на суде
13) commit a crime 13 устройство судов, структура судебной системы
14) self-defence 14 контузия, сотрясение
15) injury 15 увечье; травма; вред, ущерб
16) victim 16 находящийся в здравом рассудке; вменяемый
17) sane 17 кара, наказание
18) insanity 18 руководство, управление
19) duress by threats 19 принуждение под влиянием обстоятельств
20) duress of circumstances 20 вина; виновность
21) concussion 21 совершить преступление
22) entrapment 22 при отсутствии разумных оснований для сомнения
Part 2. Civil Law.
Although most laymen’s perception of law is associated with criminal acts, in fact the greater part of our law is civil law. For the most part civil law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals (including legal individuals such as limited liability companies) as between themselves. Among civil law branches are such as Family law, Property law, Civil Rights law, Media law, Education law, Consumer protection law, Environmental law, etc.
The main areas of civil law with which a business may be concerned are:
Law of contract. This is concerned with the enforcement of promises, usually in the form of agreements. Such agreements may be formal written agreements or informal oral agreements, or even agreements to be implied from conduct.
Law of tort. A tort is a civil wrong, other than a breach of contract or a breach of trust (both of which are civil wrongs but are not torts), which may be remedied by an action for damages. Unlike contract the duty which is breached in committing a tort is fixed by the law, whereas the duty which is breached in committing a breach of contract is a duty undertaken voluntarily as a result of a promise to the other party. There are quite a number of individual torts: e.g. negligence, nuisance, trespass (to person, to goods, or to land), defamation, and deceit.
Commercial law. This law comprises the rules relating to specific types of contract such as sale of goods, supply of services, hire purchase, insurance, consumer credit, carriage of goods, etc.
Company law. This is the field of law concerning companies, corporations, partnerships and other business organizations. It also specifies the relationship between a business entity and outside parties who commercially interact with it.
Labour law. This can be divided into two parts. First, there is employment law – the part which regulates individual employment rights, for example, the rules relating to unfair dismissal, the right to redundancy payment, equal pay, etc. Secondly, there is industrial law – the part which relates to collective activity, for example, the law relating to industrial action, admission to and expulsion from trade unions, etc. Some employment law, particularly in the area of health and safety, is criminal law.
Land law. The main areas which concern businesses are the law relating to the relationship of landlord and tenant and planning law.
It is extremely important to understand that a particular course of conduct can give rise to consequences in both civil law and criminal law at the same time. For example, the crime of murder (and most other criminal offences involving physical injury) will at the same time involve the torts (that is, the civil wrongs) of assault and battery. The crime of causing criminal damage will amount to the tort of trespass to goods. The crime of causing death by dangerous driving will amount to the tort of negligence.
3. Соотнесите русские слова и словосочетания к их английскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) непрофессионалы, неюристы, неспециалисты 1 enforcement
2) законодательство в области гражданских прав 2 action for damages
3) законодательство о средствах массовой 3 deceit информации
4) закон о защите потребителей 4 Consumer protection law
5) предприятие, фирма, компания, бизнес 5 laymen
6) иметь дело 6 sale of goods
7) принудительное применение (права, закона); 7 supply of правоприменение; принудительное проведение services в жизнь; принуждение к выполнению требований
8) подразумеваться 8 hire purchase
9) деликт, гражданское правонарушение 9 be implied
10) нарушение доверенным лицом своих 10 Civil Rights law обязанностей, предусмотренных договором, в пользу бенефициара
11) иск о возмещении убытков 11 undertake
12) брать на себя определённые обязательства, 12 be concerned принимать на себя
13) небрежность; невнимательность, халатность 13 breach of trust
14) помеха, неудобство; нарушение покоя, вред, 14 nuisance источник вреда, «зловредность» (в частности, причинение собственнику недвижимости помех и неудобств в пользовании ею)
15) противоправное нарушение владения с 15 business причинением вреда
16) обман, намеренное введение в заблуждение 16 tort
17) продажа товара; закон, описывающий права 17 negligence покупателя и продавца
18) продажа и предоставления услуг 18 Media law
19) покупка или продажа в рассрочку 19 trespass
4. Соотнесите английские слова и словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) insurance 1 приём на работу, трудоустройство
2) consumer credit 2 забастовочное движение
3) carriage of goods 3 определенное поведение, конкретные действия
4) partnership 4 товарищество, партнерство (некорпорированная фирма, которой управляют несколько компаньонов)
5) business entity 5 страхование
6) employment law 6 служить поводом, вызывать
7) employment 7 умышленное убийство
8) unfair dismissal 8 оскорбление действием
9) redundancy payment 9 несправедливое увольнение
10) industrial law 10 потребительский кредит
11) industrial action 11 профессиональные союзы
12) trade unions 12 опасное вождение
13) landlord 13 производственное право, закон о внутрипроизводственных отношениях
14) tenant 14 арендатор
15) planning law 15 предприятие
16) particular course of 16 пособие при увольнении в связи с conduct сокращением
17) give rise 17 собственник недвижимости
18) murder 18 перевозка товаров
19) assault and battery 19 законодательство о землеустройстве
20) dangerous driving 20 трудовое право
5. Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные эти утверждения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «Civil and criminal law» Part 1 и Part 2.
1) A particular course of conduct can fall under both civil law and criminal law at the same time.
2) A person may be considered guilty as soon as any element of an alleged crime has been established in his acts.
3) Children under 16 are excused from criminal responsibility.
4) Criminal Law not only defines crimes and fixes punishments for them but also includes some procedures for preventing crimes.
5) Company law also specifies the relationship between a business entity and outside parties.
6) Labour law can be divided into seven parts.
6. Соотнесите слова и словосочетания к их переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) action for damages 1. защита
2) гражданское право 2. халатность, пренебрежение
3) корпоративное право 3. иск о возмещении убытков
4) поведение 4. presumption of innocence
5) corpus delicti 5. (to) prosecute
6) преступление 6. civil law
7) уголовное право 7. injured party
8) defences 8. punishment
9) виновный 9. company law
10) пострадавшая сторона 10. (to) commit a crime
11) трудовое право 11. labour law
12) договорное право 12. conduct
13) law of tort 13. (to) punish
14) liability 14. law of contract
15) negligence 15. состав преступления
16) презумпция невиновности 16. преследование
17) prosecution 17. деликтное право
18) наказание 18. crime
19) совершать преступление 19. guilt
20) преследовать 20. обязательство, ответственность
21) наказывать 21. criminal law
22) жертва 22. victim
7. Выполните письменный перевод текста «Part 2. Civil Law», пользуясь электронным словарем.
TEXT 3. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.
The European Union (EU) is a supranational and intergovernmental union of 27 states with its total population about 500 million people. There are 23 official and working languages within the Union. Citizens of EU member states are also EU citizens: they directly elect the European Parliament, once every five years. They can live, travel, work, and invest in other member states (with some restrictions on new member states). Passport control and customs checks at most internal borders were abolished by the Schengen Agreement.
The European Union is governed by a number of institutions, these primarily being the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Court of Justice, and the European Parliament.
The European Commission acts as an executive or Civil Service. It is currently composed of one member from each state and is responsible for drafting all proposed law, a duty on which it maintains a monopoly in order to co-ordinate European Law. It also controls some agencies and the day-to-day running of the Union. Its president is nominated by the European Council then elected by the Parliament.
The Council of the European Union (also known as the Council of Ministers) forms one half of the Union's legislative branch (the other being the Parliament). It is composed of the respective national ministers. The body's presidency rotates between the member-states every 6 months, though the current president member-state cooperates with the previous and future president member-state, to provide continuity.
The European Parliament is the only Union body composed of officials directly elected on European issues. Every 5 years citizens in all member-states vote for 751 «MEPs» who form the second half of the Union's legislative branch. Seats are distributed among the European Union member states based on their respective populations. Its members sit according to political groups rather than nationality and its president is elected by its members.
The judicial branch of the Union consists primarily of the European Court of Justice composed of one judge nominated by each member-state with the president elected from among those nominees. Below the Court of Justice there is a lower court called the Court of First Instance created to lift some of the work load of the Court of Justice. There is also the European Court of Auditors which monitors the Union's accounts.
There is no official European capital, with institutions spread across a number of cities. However, Brussels is often considered the de facto capital as it hosts most of the primary institutions, including the Commission and the Council. The Parliament also has its second seat in the city. Strasbourg is the official seat of the European Parliament, meeting there for twelve week-long plenary sessions each year. Luxembourg City plays host to the Secretariat of the European Parliament as well as the European Court of Justice, the Court of First Instance and the European Court of Auditors.
EU law covers only member states themselves. Where a conflict arises between EU law and the law of a member state, EU law takes precedence, so that the law of a member state must lose effect. Both the provisions of the Treaties, and EU regulations are said to have «direct effect» horizontally.
The other main legal instrument of the EU, «directives», have direct effect, but only «vertically». Private citizens may not sue one another on the basis of EU directives, since these are meant to be addressed to the member state. Directives allow some choice for member states in the way they translate a directive into national law. Once this has happened citizens may rely on the law that has been implemented. They may only sue the government «vertically» for failing to implement a directive correctly.
Exercises:
1. Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) Supranational 1. чередовать(ся); сменять(ся) по очереди
2) customs check 2. преследовать судом; подавать в суд, возбуждать иск
3) internal borders 3. обеспечивать преемственность
4) Schengen Agreement 4. наднациональный
5) European Court 5. кандидат на должность; номинант, of Justice (ECJ) претендент
6) Civil Service 6. таможенный досмотр
7) Presidency 7. принимать гостей, выступать в роли принимающей стороны
8) Rotate 8. внутренние границы
9) provide continuity 9. пленум; пленарное заседание
10) nominee 10. Шенгенский договор, 1985 (Соглашение «О постепенной отмене проверок на общих границах»; подписано в городке Шенген (Люксембург)
11) host 11. иметь преимущественное значение, превосходить по важности
12) plenary session 12. Европейский суд
13) take precedence 13. утратить юридическую силу
14) lose effect 14. аппарат международных организаций
15) sue 15. директива, предписание, руководящие разъяснения
16) directive 16. 1) президентство, обязанности президента; 2) председательство; обязанности председателя
2. Выполните письменный перевод текста «European community», пользуясь электронным словарем.
TEXT 4. THE US ATTORNEY.
In order to practice law in the USA, one must first be «admitted to the bar» in an individual state. This entails passing the state bar exam. The bar exam covers the law particular to that state and is approximately 6 hours in length. Thus attorneys in America are licensed to practice only in their home states. If they wish to practice in another state, they must fulfill that state's requirements - such as taking test on the specific features of that state's law (a part of the bar examination) before they can practice. Fortunately, there are some states that have reciprocity agreements when two or more states honor each other's rights or privileges, such as practicing law.
Generally, state bar examiners require evidence of three qualities in exam candidates: sufficient general education at the undergraduate level; sufficient US legal education; and sufficient knowledge of local bar requirements. Each state bar administration sets its own criteria for permission to sit the state bar exam.
In addition to the state bar exam, almost all states also require the Multistate Bar Exam (MBE). The MBE covers general legal knowledge in areas such as contracts, torts, constitutional law, criminal law, evidence and real property. It is a 6-hour, multiple choice exam made up of 200 questions.
A typical second day of testing includes series of timed essay exams on a variety of subjects. This portion may be comprised of two other multistate exams: the Multistate Essay Exam (MEE) and the Multistate Performance Test (MPT).
Part of the licensing process involves the assessment by bar examiners of an applicant’s character and fitness to engage in the practice of law. Currently, most states also require law students to pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE). The MPRE tests knowledge of the American Bar Association codes on professional responsibility and judicial conduct. The MPRE is a 2-hour, multiple-choice exam.
Upon admission to practice, an attorney is licensed to serve as both advocate and legal counselor. There is no division of the profession between barristers and solicitors, as in England.
At the same time on the federal level there exists the American Bar Association (ABA), which was founded in August 21, 1878 as a voluntary national organization of the legal profession. The activities of the association include maintenance of high ethical standards for the profession. The most current version of these standards, the Model Rules of Professional Conduct, was adopted in 2000.
The American Bar Association also accredits law schools under the authority of state high courts and the United States Department of Education, and according to standards developed by the association. Policies of the association are determined by a house of delegates representing the legal profession and administered by a board of governors. The ABA holds an annual meeting, which is the largest annual gathering of lawyers in the world, and is attended by approximately 12,500 international lawyers.
Exercises:
1. Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) cover 1. уровень начальной стадии высшего образования
2) in length 2. функциональный тест
3) reciprocity agreement 3. включать, содержать, охватывать
4) honor 4. сдавать экзамен
5) examiner 5. совет управляющих
6) undergraduate level 6. профессиональная ответственность
7) sit an exam 7. общий для определенного количества штатов
8) multistate 8. продолжительностью
9) multiple-choice exam 9. палата депутатов
10) essay exam 10. кодекс; система правил (поведения, чести, морали и т. д.)
11) performance test 11. экзамен, представляющий возможность выбора из предоставленных ответов
12) professional 12. соглашение, основанное на responsibility взаимности
13) code 13. уважать, соблюдать
14) judicial conduct 14. беспристрастное поведение, поведение юриста
15) current 15. сочинение-рассуждение
16) accredit 16. современный, популярный, широко распространенный
17) house of delegates 17. признать высшее учебное заведение правомочным выдавать дипломы и присваивать учёные степени
18) board of governors 18. экзаменатор, эксперт
2. Ответьте письменно на вопросы по тексту.
1) What must a person do if he wishes to practice law in the USA?
2) How may reciprocity agreements between states be connected with legal profession?
3) What qualities of candidates are evaluated by state bar examiners?
4) What areas does the MBE cover general legal knowledge in?
5) What does the MPRE tests knowledge code on?
6) How long does the MPRE last?
7) What activities does the ABA carry out?
8) How are the policies of the ABA determined and administered?
3. Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные предложения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «The US attorney».
1) In order to practice law in the United States, one must be admitted to the ABA.
2) The criteria for permission to sit the state bar exam are the same all over the USA.
3) The state bar exam in most states is also known as the Multistate Bar Exam.
4) America has the same division of the profession between barristers and solicitors, as in England.
5) The ABA holds an annual meeting, which is the largest annual gathering of lawyers in the world.
4. Соотнесите глаголы к их определениям на английском языке, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
to administer to admit to argue to compel to disclose
to educate to practice to qualify to regulate to represent
to require to sue
1) to allow somebody to become a member of a club, a school, or an organization;
2) to be a member of a group of people and act or speak on their behalf at an event, a meeting, etc.; to make a formal statement to somebody in authority to make your opinions known or to protest;
3) to control something by means of rules;
4) to force somebody to do something; to cause a particular reaction; to make something necessary;
6) to give reasons why you think that something is right / wrong, true / not true, etc., especially to persuade people that you are right;
7) to give somebody information about something, especially something that was previously secret;
8) to make a claim against somebody in court about something that they have said or done to harm you; to formally ask for something, especially in court;
9) to manage and organize the affairs of a company, an organization, a country, etc.; to make sure that something is done fairly and in the correct way;
10) to demand that smb should do, have or be sth, especially because it is their duty or responsibility; to make somebody do or have something, especially because it is necessary according to a particular law or set of rules;
11) to reach the standard of ability or knowledge needed to do a particular job, for example by completing a course of study or passing exams;
12) to teach somebody over a period of time at a school, university, etc.;
13) to work as a doctor, lawyer, etc.; to do an activity or train regularly so that you can improve your skill.
Text 5. LAW FIRM.
A law firm is a business entity formed by one or more lawyers to engage in the practice of law. The primary service provided by a law firm is to advise clients (individuals or corporations) about their legal rights and responsibilities, and to represent their clients in civil or criminal cases, business transactions and other matters in which legal assistance is sought.
Smaller firms tend to focus on particular specialties of the law (e.g. patent law, labor law, tax law, criminal defense, personal injury); larger firms may be composed of several specialized practice groups, allowing the firm to diversify their client base and market, and to offer a variety of services to their clients.
Law firms are organized in a variety of ways, but common arrangements include:
• sole proprietorship, in which the lawyer is the law firm and is responsible for all profit, loss and liability;
• general partnership, in which all of the lawyers in the firm equally share ownership and liability;
• limited liability partnership, in which the lawyer-owners are partners with one another, but no partner is liable to any creditor of the law firm nor is any partner liable for any negligence on the part of any other partner;
• limited liability company, in which the lawyer-owners are called «members» but are not directly liable to third party creditors of the law firm.
In many countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, there is a rule that only lawyers may have an ownership interest in, or be managers of, a law firm. Thus, law firms cannot quickly raise capital through initial public offerings on the stock market, like most corporations. The rule was created in order to prevent conflicts of interest.
Lawyers are paid for their work in a variety of ways. In private practice, they may work for an hourly fee, a contingency fee (usually in cases involving personal injury), or a lump sum payment if the matter is straightforward. Normally, most lawyers negotiate a written fee agreement up front and may require a non-refundable retainer in advance. In many countries there are fee-shifting arrangements by which the loser must pay the winner's fees and costs.
Lawyers working directly on the payroll of governments, nonprofits, and corporations usually earn a regular annual salary. In many countries lawyers can also volunteer their labor in the service of worthy causes through an arrangement called pro bono (for the common good). Traditionally such work was performed on behalf of the poor, but in some countries it has now expanded to many other causes like the natural environment.
Exercises:
1. Соотнесите английские словосочетания к их русскому переводу, пользуясь текстом и электронным словарем.
1) engage in 1. «конфликт интересов», злоупотребление положением в личных целях»
2) business transaction 2. соглашение об оплате услуг
3) specialty = speciality 3. простой, ясный, понятный
4) composed 4. фондовый рынок, рынок ценных бумаг
5) diversify 5. предварительно, авансом, вперёд
6) client base 6. привлекать капитал, мобилизовывать средства
7) raise capital 7. невозмещаемый предварительный гонорар адвокату
8) stock market 8. клиентская база, клиентура
9) conflict of interest 9. практика оплаты судебных издержек проигравшей стороной
10) straightforward 10. диверсифицировать, разнообразить, дифференцировать
11) fee agreement 11. в списочном составе, из фонда заработной платы
12) up front 12. сборный, составной
13) non-refundable retainer 13. некоммерческая компания
14) fee-shifting arrangement 14. специализация, специализированная услуга
15) on the payroll 15. предлагать (свою помощь, услуги) бесплатно; вызваться добровольно; добровольно взять на себя что-л.
16) nonprofit 16. деловая операция, коммерческая сделка
17) volunteer 17. благое дело, социально-значимое дело
18) worthy cause 18. заниматься, иметь дело
2. Ответьте письменно на вопросы по тексту. На вопросы 1 и 2 дайте краткий ответ «Да», «Нет».
1) Is there any limitation with regard to the number of lawyers who may establish a law firm?
2) Does the size of a law firm reflect the range of services it may provide?
3) Who may have an ownership interest in a law firm? Why is it so?
4) What are the kinds of fees for legal services?
5) What does a fee-shifting arrangement stipulate?
6) Who in legal profession usually earns a regular annual salary?
3. Поставьте T (true), если истинные, F (false), если ложные эти утверждения, исходя из информации, представленной в тексте «The US attorney».
1) Only corporations may seek for advice of a law firm.
2) A law firm may be organized either as a sole proprietorship or a partnership.
3) Any citizen of a particular age and compos mentis may have an ownership interest in, or be a manager of, a law firm.
4) As a rule law firms raise their capital through regular public offerings on the stock market.
5) In many countries lawyers are prohibited to volunteer their labor.
6) In private practice lawyers work on the payroll of the government.
7) A lump sum payment is a common arrangement for work being performed on behalf of the poor.
PART III
TEST YOUR PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH IN USE
Test 1.
1. The following terms introduce you to the law and basic legal terminology. Below are the definitions. Match the definition with each term.
1. a body that is appointed to make a judgement or inquiry a) judiciary
2. a country's body of judges b) authority
3. an act or acts passed by a law-making body c) court
4. behaviour recognized by a community as binding
or enforceable by authority d) legal action
5. legal proceedings e) legal system
6. an official body that has authority to try criminals,
resolve disputes, or make other legal decisions f) judge
7. an organization responsible for enforcing the law,
especially the police g) legislation
8. a senior official in a court of law h) rule
9. the body or system of rules recognized i) law
by a community that are enforceable enforcement
by established process agency
10. the control resulting from following j) tribunal
a community's system of rules
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
1) legal activities а) законные права
2) legal address b) законный владелец
3) legal advice с) имеющий законную силу
4) legal age d) использовать свое законное право
5) legal costs е) история права
6) legal decision f) консультация юриста
7) legal document g) правовая защита
8) legal entity h) правовой документ
9) legal ethics i) правовой статус
10) legal expert j) правомерная, законная деятельность
11) legal history k) профессиональная этика юриста
12) legal language 1) решение суда
13) legal owner m) совершеннолетие
14) legal procedure n) стать юристом
15) legal protection o) судебные издержки
16) legal rights р) судопроизводство
17) legal status q) юридическая терминология
18) of legal force r) юридический адрес
19) to enjoy one’s legal rights s) юридическое лицо
20) to enter the legal profession t) юрисконсульт; юр. cоветник
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
3. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
A
1) litigation a) судебный процесс по гражданскому делу
2) civil litigation b) судебные издержки
3) local litigation c) предмет судебного спора
4) litigation expenses d) судебный процесс, спор, тяжба
5) issue in the litigation e) тяжба в местном суде
1 2 3 4 5
B
1) lawsuit a) подать иск
2) to be cast in lawsuit b) сторона по делу
3) party to a lawsuit c) проиграть судебный процесс
4) to file a lawsuit d) судебный процесс, судебное дело, иск, тяжба, правовой спор, судебный спор, судебное разбирательство
1 2 3 4
C
1) suit a) возбудить дело, тяжбу
2) to win/to lose a suit b) оказывать давление на ход судебного процесса
3) to mount a suit c) выиграть/проиграть судебный процесс
4) to press a suit d) предъявить иск
5) to bring a suit e) судебный процесс, иск, преследование по суду, судебное дело, судебная тяжба, судопроизводство
1 2 3 4 5
D
1) trial a) вести судебный процесс
2) open(-court) trial b) инсценированный судебный процесс
3) to conduct/hold a trial c) судебный процесс, судебное разбирательство, слушание дела
4) staged trial d) открытый судебный процесс
5) trial by jury e) предать суду
6) to bring to trial/ f) рассмотрение дела с участием to put (up)on trial/ присяжных
to place on trial
7) to face trial g) отвечать перед судом
8) to stand trial h) предстать перед судом
9) civil trial i) уголовное судопроизводство
10) criminal trial j) гражданское судопроизводство
11) preliminary trial k) задержка судебного разбирательства, отсрочка судебного разбирательства
12) case for trial/trial case l) дело на стадии судебного рассмотрения
13) case on trial m) судебное следствие
14) delay in trial n) дело, подлежащее судебному рассмотрению
15) trial docket/trial list o) список дел к слушанию
16) investigation at the trial p) сторона в процессе; участник процесса
17) party to a trial q) предварительное слушание дела
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
E
1) cause a) сторона по делу
2) legal cause b) дело о тяжком/малозначительном правонарушении
3) major/minor cause c) список дел к слушанию
4) costs in the cause d) судебное дело, законное основание
5) list e) судебные издержки, издержки в процессе cause
6) side in a cause f) судебный процесс, судебное дело, тяжба
1 2 3 4 5 6
F
1) controversy a) сторона в судебном споре
2) legal controversy b) гражданский судебный процесс, правовой спор, судебный спор
3) to decide a controversy c) правовой спор; судебный спор
4) party in controversy d) решить спор
1 2 3 4
G
1) arrest process a) возбудить уголовное преследование
2) proceeding(s) b) приказ суда об аресте
3) to take criminal proceeding(s) c) судебный процесс, рассмотрение дела в суде, судебное разбирательство, судебная процедура, производство по делу, судопроизводство
4) civil proceeding(s) d) уголовное судопроизводство
5) criminal proceeding(s) e) процедура конфискации
6) forfeiture proceeding(s) f) гражданское производство
1 2 3 4 5 6
Test 2.
1. The following terms introduce you to the law and basic legal terminology. The words in this exercise are used a lot in the legal profession. Choose the right variant.
1. Money claimed by someone as compensation for harm done.
A) damages B) offence C) case D) tribunal
2. To send someone to prison or to a court.
A) fine B) plead C) convict D) commit
3. Not guilty of a crime.
A) judicial B) innocent C) guilty D) criminal
4. Any act which is not legal.
A) offence B) lawyer C) tribunal D) dispute
5. A person who has studied law and can act for people on legal business.
A) claimant B) defendant C) lawyer D) accused
6. A disagreement or argument between parties.
A) dispute B) breach C) case D) hearing
7. An official who presides over a court.
A) barrister B) defendant C) claimant D) judge
8. Someone who is accused of a crime in a criminal case.
A) lawyer B) solicitor C) defendant D) claimant
9. A person who makes a claim against someone in a civil court.
A) claimant B) defendant C) barrister D) lawyer
10. An agreement reached after an argument.
A) damages B) prosecution C)settlement D) judiciary
11. A court order telling someone to stop doing something, or not to do something.
A) appeal B) hearing C) injunction D) fine
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
1. arbitrary government a) действующее правительство
2. authoritarian government b) местное самоуправление
3. colonial form of government c) военная администрация
4. government investigation d) смешанная форма правления
5. government of the day e) парламентское правление
6. government office f) правительство Её Величества
7. government official g) правящая партия
8. government party h) правительственные учреждения
9. government(al) department i) представительная форма правления
10. government(al) regulation j) временное правительство
11. government’s term of office k) распустить/расформировать правительство
12. Her Majesty’s Government l) органы государственного управления
13. local government m) автократия
14. military government n) президентская власть
15. mixed government o) авторитарная форма правления
16. organs of government p) правительственное ведомство
17. parliamentary government q) правительственное расследование
18. presidential government r) колониальная форма государственного устройства
19. provisional government s) постановление правительства
20. representative government t) правительственный чиновник
21. to dissolve the government u) срок полномочий правительства
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Test 3.
1. Courts can be distinguished with regard to the type of cases they hear. Choose the right type of court according to the explanation of what happens there.
1. This is where a person under the age of 18 would be tried.
A) magistrates' court B) juvenile court
C) appellate court D) tribunal
2. This is the court of primary jurisdiction where a case is heard for the first time.
A) tribunal B) moot court
C) crown court D) lower court (or court of first instance)
3. This is where small crimes are tried in the UK.
A) magistrates' court B) appellate court
C) high court (or supreme court) D) small-claims court
4. This is where law students argue hypothetical cases.
A) small-claims court B) moot court
C) crown court D) high court (or supreme court)
5. This is where a case is reviewed which has already been heardin a lower court.
A) juvenile court B) court of Justice of the European Communities
C) appellate court (or court of appeals. appeals court) D) magistrates' court
1 2 3 4 5
2. Match the following Russian expressions with their English equivalents.
1. превышать свои полномочия a) competent authority
2. власть /полномочия парламента b) law-enforcement authorities/agencies
3. законная власть c) lawful authority
4. из надёжного источника d) on good authority
5. иметь/осуществлять власть e) the authority of Parliament
6. неограниченные полномочия f) to abuse one’s authority
7. наделять полномочиями кого-л. g) to endue with authority
8. облечь властью h) to gain in authority
9. передавать свои i) to hand over
полномочия кому-л. one’s authority to smb.
10. подрывать чей-л. авторитет j) to have/to exercise authority
11. правоохранительные органы k) to undermine smb.’s authority
12. авторитетный специалист l) to vest smb. with authority
13. приобретать всё большую власть m) unrestricted authority
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
3. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
A
1) evidence for the plaintiff a) вызывать истца в суд
2) judgement for the plaintiff b) выступать в суде в качестве адвоката истца
3) plaintiff’s claim c) доказательства в пользу истца
4) to appear for the plaintiff d) исковое требование
5) to call the plaintiff e) свидетель, выставленный истцом
6) witness by the plaintiff f) судебное решение в пользу истца
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B
1) convicted defendant a) подсудимый, содержащийся под стражей
2) defendant in custody b) осуждённый
3) defendant’s record c) досье подсудимого
4) defendant’s story d) свидетель, выставленный ответчиком/подсудимым
5) defendant’s witness e) версия, выдвинутая обвиняемым
1 2 3 4 5
C
1) final verdict a) вердикт о виновности
2) general verdict b) вердикт о невиновности
3) special verdict c) вердикт об оправдании
4) to attain/reach/ d) вердикт об осуждении
retum/bring in a verdict
5) unanimous verdict e) вынести вердикт
6) verdict of acquital f) генеральный вердикт, вердикт по существу дела
7) verdict of conviction g) окончательный вердикт
8) verdict of guilty h) ошибочный вердикт
9) verdict of non-guilty i) прийти к соглашению относительно вердикта
10) wrong verdict j) вердикт, вынесенный единогласно
11) to agree k) специальный вердикт (решение to/upon a verdict присяжными частного вопроса)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Test 4.
1. The following terms introduce you to the people in the law. Complete these paragraphs with words or expressions from the box.
Barristers:
a) called to the Bar
b) exclusively
c) Inns of Court
d) pupilage
e) right of audience
In England and Wales, a barrister is a member of one of the 1) ____________(= the four law societies in London to which lawyers are members); he or she has passed examinations and spent one year in 2) ____________ (= training) before being 3) ____________ (= being fully accepted to practise law). Barristers have the 4) ____________ in all courts in England and Wales: in other words, they have the right to speak, but they do not have that right 5) ____________.
1 2 3 4 5
Magistrates:
a) adoption
b) affiliation
c) bench
d) clerk
e) commit
f) Crown Court
g) lay
h) Magistrates' Courts
i) sentence
j) stipendiary
k) trial
Magistrates usually work in 1) ____________. These courts hear cases of petty crime, 2) ____________,3) ____________, maintenance and violence in the home. The court can 4) ____________ someone for 5) ____________ or for 6) ____________ in a 7) ____________. There are two main types of magistrates: 8) ____________ magistrates (qualified lawyers who usually sit alone); 9) ____________ magistrates (unqualified, who sit as a 10) ____________ of three and can only sit if there is a justices' 11) ____________ present to advise them).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents
1. punitive sentencing a) карательная мера
2. punitive institution b) карательное воздействие
3. punitive justice c) карательное правосудие
4. punitive law d) карательное учреждение
5. punitive legislation e) лишение свободы как кара за совершённое преступление
6. punitive measure f) уголовное законодательство
7. punitive treatment g) уголовный закон
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
1. credit for time in custody a) возвращение под стражу
2. defendant not in custody b) дальнейшее содержание под стражей
3. detention in custody c) передать, препроводить под стражу
4. escape by person in custody d) допрос лица, находящегося под стражей
5. in-custody confession e) содержать под стражей
6. in-custody interrogation f) зачёт времени пребывания под стражей
7. person in custody g) лицо, содержащееся под стражей
8. remand in custody h) освободить из-под стражи
9. retention in custody i) побег из-под стражи
10. to discharge from custody j) подсудимый, находящийся на свободе
11. to keep in custody k) признание, сделанное лицом, находящимся под стражей
12. to submit to custody l) содержание под стражей
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
4. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
A
1) breach of prison a) промышленная тюрьма (тюрьма, где заключённые работают в цехах, мастерских)
2) closed prison b) бежавший из тюрьмы
3) industrial prison c) бежать/совершить побег/из тюрьмы
4) open prison d) быть приговорённым к тюремному заключению
5) prison bar e) отбывать срок в тюрьме
6) prison breaker f) перевоспитание или обучение заключённых в тюрьме
7) prison education g) побег из тюрьмы/побег из-под стражи
8) prison lawyer h) тюремная камера
9) prison term i) тюремная решётка
10) prison ward j) тюремное заключение/тюремный срок
11) to be sent to prison k) тюремный юрист
12) to do one’s time l) тюрьма закрытого типа
(in prison)
13) to escape from prison m) тюрьма открытого типа (неохраняемая)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
B
1) to stand bail for smb. a) явиться в суд (о выпущенном под залог)
2) to accept/to allow/ b) быть отпущенным на поруки
to take bail for the prisoner
3) to forfeit/to jump one’s bail c) внести залог/поручиться за кого- либо
4) to find bail d) найти себе поручителя
5) release on bail e) не явиться в суд (об отпущенном под залог)
6) straw bail f) ненадёжное/“липовое” поручительство
7) to surrender to one’s bail g) освобождение под залог
8) to be out on bail h) отказать в поручительстве
9) to deny bail отпустить i) арестованного на поруки (под залог)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C
1) certificate of rehabilitation a) юридическая реабилитация, восстановление в правах
2) legal rehabilitation b) психиатрическая реабилитация
3) psychiatric rehabilitation c) социальная реабилитация (восстановление личности в смысле приспособления её к условиям жизни в обществе)
4) rehabilitation agency d) профессиональная реабилитация
5) rehabilitation centre e) орган по вопросам социальной реабилитации отбывших наказание преступников
6) social rehabilitation f) центр социальной реабилитации (лиц, освободившихся из заключения)
7) vocational rehabilitation g) исправительное заведение
8) rehabilitation facility h) справка о реабилитации
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Test 5.
1. These sentences deal with company formation and management. In each case, choose the correct word or phrase to complete them.
1. The company is governed by the board of directors, whilst the day-to-day management is delegated a) upon b) to c) for the managing director.
2. In some companies. the articles of association a) make b) give c) allow provision for rotation of directors, whereby only a certain portion of the board must retire and present itself for reelection before the AGM.
3. Many small shareholders do not bother to attend shareholders' meetings and will often receive proxy circulars from the board, seeking authorisation to vote on a) the basis of b) in respect of c) on behalf of the shareholder.
1 2 3
VOCABULARY: LABOUR LAW
2. Arrange the paragraphs to make the whole text. It is the beginning of the text «LABOUR LAW».
a) Thus employees have certain rights enforceable by law:
• the right of fair treatment regardless of age, race, religion, gender, or disabilities;
• the right to equal treatment, also with regard to wages;
• the right not to be dismissed without proper cause and the correct procedures;
• the right not to be dismissed for giving birth to a child;
• the right for compensation when employees are retrenched.
b) The basic feature of individual labour law is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer between one another are mediated through the contract of employment between the two. Many terms and conditions of the contract are however implied by legislation or common law, in such a way as to restrict the freedom of people to agree to certain things in order to protect employees, and facilitate a fluid labour market.
c) In general, there are two broad categories of labour law. First, collective labour law relates to the three-party relationship between employee, employer and union. It mostly concerns the inequality of bargaining power between employers and workers.
d) Second, individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work and conditions and terms of employment.
e) Labour law is the body of laws, administrative rulings, and precedents which address the legal rights of, and restrictions on, working people and their organisations. As such, it mediates many aspects of the relationship between trade unions, employers and employees.
1 2 3 4 5
3. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents.
1. evidence in the case a) вещественное доказательство
2. evidence on oath b) давать показания, представить доказательства
3. to give/offer/introduce/ c) доказательства вины; улики
produce evidence
4. to plant evidence d) доказательства или показания по делу
5. to weigh evidence e) доказательства, показания, полученные с нарушением закона
6. to withhold evidence f) доказательство из первых рук
7. evidence wrongfully obtained g) заключение эксперта
8. evidence of guilt h) косвенное доказательство
9. circumstantial evidence i) лжесвидетельство
10. conclusive/decisive evidence j) ложное доказательство, показание
11. expert evidence k) недостаточное доказательство
12. false evidence l) неопровержимое доказательство
13. first hand evidence m) окончательное, решающее доказательство
14. insufficient evidence n) оценить доказательства
15. irrefutable evidence o) показания под присягой
16. perjured evidence p) скрыть доказательства
17. physical evidence q) сфабриковать доказательства
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Test 6.
Выберите правильный вариант ответа
1. The Queen in Parliament ________the supreme authority within the UK.
a. dissolves
b. includes
c. signs
d. represents
2. The UK has no________.
a. the House of Lords
b. Ministry of Justice
c. the House of Commons
d. the Prime Minister
3. Members of Parliament represent an area in ________.
a. England and Scotland
b. Scotland and Wales
c. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
d. England, Scotland and Northern Ireland
4. The House of Commons consists ________ MPs.
a. in
b. out of
c. by
d. of
5. The Federal Assembly is the highest ________organ of Russia.
a. Executive
b. legislative
c. limited
d. fundamental
6. The highest legislative organ of Russia consists of ________ chambers.
a. one
b. two
c. three
d. four
7. All citizens must observe ________.
a. impeachment
b. interrogation
c. innocence
d. laws
8. The Supreme Court of Russia is ________ court in the country.
a. high
b. bigger
c. the highest
d. the biggest
9. In our country in 1960 ________ than three per cent of all criminals were people younger than 18 years of age.
a. little
b. the least
c. less
d. more
10. There was no lecture in Administrative Law ________.
a. today
b. tomorrow
c. yesterday
d. the day after tomorrow
11. There are many branches of law and penal law is one ________ them.
a. in
b. of
c. during
d. within
12. The International Court of Justice in the United Nations consists of ________.
a. 10 judges
b. 13 judges
c. 15 judges
d. 16 judges
13. Norman French terms alongside Anglo-Saxon ones were introduced in legal procedure ________ the Norman conquest ________ England ________ 1066.
a. before, in, on
b. during, of, on
c. in front of, of, in
d. after, of, in
14. In Russia all citizens at the age of 18 have the right ________.
a. to vote
a. to study
b. to elect
c. to be accused
15. We shall ________ the University in 5 years.
a. finish
b. graduate from
c. be elected
d. punish
16. The investigation didn’t last long because the investigator ________.
a. was very poor educated
b. wasn’t very mobile
c. was very inexperienced
d. was very experienced
17. Russian criminal courts consist of ________.
a. a prosecutor and a judge
b. a prosecutor and a jury
c. a lawyer and a judge
d. a judge and two assessors
18. In the US a Chief Justice and 8 associate justices are appointed by ________ and approved by the Senate.
a. the Mayor of New York
b. the Tribunal
c. the U.S. Supreme Court
d. the President
19. The purposes of the United Nations are ________ international peace and security.
a. to break
b. to maintain
c. to unite all nations
d. to burst out wars
20. The county courts deal with ________ cases.
a. highly paid
b. expensive
c. governmental
d. minor
21. In the cases are heard by the judge alone or by the collegial.
a. the County courts
b. the Crown courts
c. district courts
d. the Magistrate’s courts
22. According to ________ judges are independent and subject only to the law.
a. the local acts
b. the governmental regulation
c. the legal recommendation
d. the Constitution
23. People’s assessors are ________ of different professions.
a. foreigners
b. governmental officers
c. legal leaders
d. citizens
24. The work of the jury is ________.
a. highly paid
b. not paid
c. rather expensive
d. rather cheap
25. There is no written constitution ________.
a. in Russia
b. in France
c. in Japan
d. in the UK
26. The institution of legal defense was created in ________ in 1864.
a. Great Britain
b. the USA
c. Spain
d. our country
27. The job of ________ is to advice a person on legal matters of all kinds.
a. a barrister
b. a solicitor
c. a judge
d. a jury
28. Scotland has its own ________ in Edinburgh.
a. the House of Lords
b. the European Court of Human Rights
c. the House of Commons
d. High Court
29. ________ do not have public offices in any street.
a. prosecutors
b. judges
c. lawyers
d. barristers
30. ________ is a signing of a check or some other document with another person’s name.
a. a smuggle
b. a forgery
c. a burglary
d. a bribery
